Hard power is coercive power executed through military threats and economic inducements and based on tangible resources such as the army or economic strength. In contrast, co-optive or “soft power is the capacity to persuade others to do what one wants” (Wilson, 2008, p. 114). While the existence of hard power has a long history, the term itself arose when Joseph Nye coined soft power as a new and different form of power in a sovereign state's foreign policy. Power in international relations is defined in several different ways. The effectiveness of hard and soft power approaches depends on the accessibility of power resources (see Heywood, 2011, Figure 9.1). Hence, a state’s given soft power resources – such as its historical legacy and societal system – determine the strength and therefore the effectiveness of its soft power. Large states such as the USA or Russia with a higher national income are financially able to maintain large armed forces and to put other states economically under pressure. of soft power in international relations, the ratio between hard and soft power in their foreign policies, the current situation and challenges in this field. Hard Power. 167-180. Journal of Political Power, 4(1), pp. Nevertheless, ineffective soft power strategies are usually the exception. Nye, 2004, pp. hard power definition: 1. the use of a country's military power to persuade other countries to do something, rather than…. Overall, it appears that soft power strategies are more effective in the contemporary international system than hard power strategies. Soft power in a hard world Soft Power. Another example of hard power can be seen in recent times which is military action against Islamic State 2013 which was in response to rapid territorial gains made by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) during the first half of 2014, and its condemned executions on a global scale, reported human rights abuses and the fear of further gains due to the Syrian Civil War, many states began to intervene against it in both the Syrian Civil War and the Iraqi Civil War. In part by referring to “War on Terrorism,” George W. Bush administration used hard power measures to uproot Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein and to handle subsequent crisis in Iraq. Soft Power: the means to success in world politics. The first example is the European Union and its ability to attract new members. The President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, 2009. In this case, and as the title suggests, the main topic is power, which the author analyses and explains in great length, but in a practical way. Leonard, M., 2002. Any LITERATURE REVIEW This paper is on soft power. The Washington Quaterly, 31(2), pp. This form of political power is often aggressive (coercion), and is most immediately effective when imposed by one political body upon another of lesser military and/or economic power. The use of armed forces is, according to him, therefore not to be seen at the hard power pole of the hard-soft-power continuum. 7. ed. The USA felt the endurance of this damage for instance when facing problems of their development aid programs in Africa (cf. Smith-Windsor argues that the borders between hard and soft power blur (2000). Thus, soft power is often associated with the rise of globalization and neoliberal international relations theory. Mead, W. R., 2004. Power (International Relations) Power is one of the most important and most discussed concepts in the field of international relations, with some going as far as suggesting that international relations is dominated by ideas of power. The first part of this essay explains the concepts of hard and soft power with referring to their combination, soft power. 46-53. He stresses that armed forces can also be “called to participate in humanitarian and interposition peacekeeping operations” expressing the attractiveness of military means (2000, p. 53). This is due to an inherent aspect of the concept: as hard power forces one to act in a way different to one’s usual behaviour, one does so involuntarily. We know, for instance, that hard power and soft power can be applied in both the study of IR and social relations. Steinberg, J. They define the concept as “an approach that underscores the necessity of a strong military, but also invests heavily in alliances, partnerships, and institutions” (ibid.). In addition to soft power, smart power strategies play an important role in the contemporary international system. Does International Order Ultimately Rely on States and Military Power. 1. power categories”. These instruments are punishment, compulsion, inducement, agenda setting, persuasion and attraction (cf. 131-142. Brown defines power as not just one thing but three things all working at the same time. Joseph Nye, for example, identifies hard power as “the ability to use the carrots and sticks of economic and military might to make others follow your will.” E-IR is an independent non-profit publisher run by an all volunteer team. 6-7). The demise of hard power is caused by changes in the world order, whereas the strength of soft power is based on its endurance and sustainability. Due to the above mentioned factors limiting the effectiveness of hard power, it is hard to find successful foreign policies solely based on hard power resources. According to Wilson, smart power is “the capacity (…) to combine elements of hard and soft power in ways that are mutually reinforcing” (2008, p. 115). Soft Power: what it is, it’s importance, and the conditions for its effective use. of soft power in international relations, the ratio between hard and soft power in their foreign policies, the current situation and challenges in this field. Available at: http://2006-2009.pepfar.gov/documents/organization/81457.pdf Power is a very complex concept such that most political scientist have different definitions of power or different ways of looking at it and explaining it .however power is one of the most important instruments in international relations, Hans Morgenthau an American political scientist suggests that “international politics like all politics , is a struggle for power. This misunderstanding resulted in ignoring two key elements of soft power: the Bush administration firstly forgot about the USA’s dependence on their allies’ intelligence and policy forces and on global public support; and secondly, the question of the legitimacy of the invasion was not attributed any importance (ibid., p. 160). This is followed by a discussion of soft power and smart power. 94-109. The international relations implications are profound. Volunteering and intercultural exchanges appear to be another kind of soft power that is increasingly used in today’s global politics. Wagner lists two main reasons for this transition: On the one hand, “India’s hard power approach of the 1970s and 1980s was not very successful” (Wagner, 2005, p. 2); and on the other hand, the economic advancement after 1991 facilitated the use of economic tools in foreign policy (ibid.). 155-164. Hard power is anything military and direct. (ii) the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, is “the largest commitment ever by a single nation towards an international health initiative” (The President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, 2009, p. 1). Analysis of power in international relations, then, must include a consideration of how social structures and processes generate differential social capacities for actors to define and pursue their interests and ideals. State activities need to be perceived as legitimate in order to enhance soft power. Realism is one of these schools of thought. Learn more. Hard power encompasses a wide range of coercive policies, such as coercive diplomacy, economic sanctions, military action, and the forming of military alliances for deterrence and mutual defense. America’s Sticky Power. Hard power includes the more noticeable and predictable power associated with military force, coercion, and intimidation. Ernest Wilson describes hard power as the capacity to coerce "another to act in ways in which that entity would not have acted otherwise".[3]. 110-124. Written by: Jan-Philipp N E Wagner Although the term hard power generally refers to diplomacy, it can also be used to describe forms of negotiation which involve pressure or threats as leverage. Russia will probably hang on to Crimea because Ukraine is the weaker state and shows no real appetite to get it … The debate over whether U.S. interests abroad are better served by hard power—coercive means such as military force—or soft power—less aggressive means of persuasion, such as diplomacy, economic aid, and propaganda—is perennial. The goal of power is to influence others to do something. According to Morrison and Hicks, it was initially set up for three reasons: oil, terrorism and ungoverned spaces in Africa, and China’s increased influence in Africa (2007, p. 1). Hard power is based on military intervention, coercive diplomacy and economic sanctions (Wilson, 2008, p. 114) and relies on tangible power resources such as armed forces or economic means (Gallarotti, 2011, p. 29). Yet disciplinary discussions tend to privilege only one, albeit important, form: an actor controlling another to do what that other would not otherwise do. Thus, the EU’s soft power is beneficial for its member states as well as for the EU itself. Nye, 2004). It then turns to the dominant classical approach to international affairs, called ‘realism’, which portrays the world in terms of sovereign states aiming to preserve their security, with military force as their ultimate instrument. 1-19. Thus, soft power is often associated with the rise of globalization and neoliberal international relations theory. ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, Issue 616, pp. Public Diplomacy. [7], Joseph Nye has used the term to define some policy measures in regard to Iran as well. Rieffel and Zalud describe the positive effect of volunteering from an American perspective as follows: Overseas volunteer work is a form of soft power that contributes measurably to the security and well-being of Americans. Many states now enact soft power rather than hard in its external relations. London: The Foreign Policy Centre. In the short term, these mistakes led to the failure of the action. Within International Relations, there are several ‘schools of thought’, each with their own theories and assumptions. This work can be used for background reading and research, but should not be cited as an expert source or used in place of scholarly articles/books. Prevailing power transition theories focus on hard sources of power to explain why international institutions do, or do not, adapt to shifts in the balance of power among their members. The study illustrates the differences in perception and use of soft and hard power Hard power is the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. Real Leaders do Soft Power: Learning Lessons of Iraq. The term Hard Power is defined as a coercive approach to international political relations, one that involves the use of military and economic power to influence or control the behaviour or interests of other states or political groups. support open access publishing. 63-64). As the complexity of human interaction increases so too does the complexity of international relations and politics. Armitage and Nye state in 2007 that smart power draws from both hard and soft power resources (p. 7). 153-171. While the existence of hard power has a long history, the term itself arose when Joseph Nye coined soft power as a new and different form of power in a sovereign state's foreign policy. In other words, the purpose of this thesis is to study hard, soft and smart power as “ideal-type. In the long term, they have caused the degradation of American soft power as “the strategy undermined the U.S. global position” (ibid., p. 160) and “global public confidence in U.S. leadership” (ibid., p. 157). It is published as part of our mission to showcase peer-leading papers written by students during their studies. This discussion also includes examples for the use of smart power. CSIS Commission on Smart Power: A smarter, more secure America. Because the attractiveness of money is such a strong persuasive tool this type of development aid is a good example for an effective smart power strategy. Basingstoke: Palgrave Foundation. However some are warning of declining British influence. Meanwhile, the scholars and practitioners start to recognize that the world is in need of a shift Soft power is cultural, trade and idea-oriented. An example for employed smart power is the US-American effort to strengthen its influence in Africa. Mirror, mirror on the wall, who is the softest of the m all? 51-56. The underlying principle is simple: in order to be eligible for partaking in the programs, a state has to meet the conditions set by the USA. Part 1 presents a critical account of prevalent conceptions of'hard power' in mainstream studies informed by realist!R and maintains that realism's power analysis is rather unrealistic insofar as it over-privileges material forms of power and focuses on the visible dimension of power relations … Power (International Relations) Power is one of the most important and most discussed concepts in the field of international relations, with some going as far as suggesting that international relations is dominated by ideas of power. The Future of Power by Joseph Nye is one of those books that have the potential to make you think about the world you live in. [2] Here, "carrots" stand for inducements such as the reduction of trade barriers, the offer of an alliance or the promise of military protection. International Relations (1R). Power can be seen as a very complicated concept within International Relations. International Relations of the Asia-Pacific, Volume 10, pp. 275-304. The demise of hard power is caused by changes in the world order, whereas the strength of soft power is based on its endurance and sustainability. As soft power has weaknesses, too, it is worth considering the strength of smart power strategies. Power in International Relations does not only refer to military might but also includes economic power, cultural power and also, 'soft' and 'hard' power. Cooper lists three points of weakness. The economic sanctions imposed saw a major economic collapse of the Iranian economy in terms of inflation and GDP. Cooper emphasises the importance of legitimacy for the concept of soft power (2004, p. 173). Soft power collectively refers to the tools in a nation-state’s arsenal that do not punish, reward, or threaten other actors into preferred behavior. According to Hackbarth (2008, pp. Smart Power. Heng, however, explains the importance of the nature of soft power resources in his comparison of Japanese and Chinese soft power strategies. [5][6] To be more specific, the United States’ attack on Iraq in 2003 was initially justified based on concerns about Iraq's possession of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). In other words, the purpose of this thesis is to study hard, soft and smart power as “ideal-type. Popular culture and mass media is regularly identified as a source of soft power, as is the spread of a national language, or a particular set of normative structures.Another term created by J. Ney is hard power. bandwidth bills to ensure we keep our existing titles free to view. This idea was taken up and coined “smart power” by Nossel (cf. Commitment to Global HIV/AIDS. Evaluating Japanese and Chinese strategies in the ‘soft’ power competitions era. Heywood, A,. As Mead states, “the generosity of U.S. humanitarian assistance abroad enhances U.S. soft power” (2004, p. 51). Since becoming president, Barack Obama has emphasized soft power, suggesting that an over-reliance on military force has alienated many of the United States friends and allies without achieving much in return. Diplomacy in the XXI century it’s absolutely different than in the past but since then it has influence on foreign policy. It appears that generating hard power requires much less time as its resources are tangible. The concept of hard and soft power is a continuum with several instruments of different degrees of coercion or persuasion. Another important aspect of the hard-soft-power continuum is time. The study illustrates the differences in perception and use of soft and hard power Nye, J. S., 2009. Who created those terms and how they are implemented in foreign policy. However, many critics mention that the war in Iraq had the United States lose its reputation as an icon for democracy and justice. Heng, Y.-K., 2010. Written at: University of Dundee Finally, he challenges the actual benefit of agenda setting as the positive results of those practices seem to occur long after their originators’ demises (ibid., p.171). Hackbarth, J. R., 2008. This content was originally written for an undergraduate or Master's program. Donations are voluntary and not required to download the e-book - your link to download is below. For smaller states, these traditional tools of hard power are more difficult to obtain. Hard power can be used to establish or change a state of political hegemony or balance of power. The aim of this article is to demonstrate how a relational concept of power can benefit Foreign Policy Analysis (FPA). The idea to distinguish between hard power and soft power was first introduced by Nye more than two decades ago (1990). Insurgencies against the external force can be prominent. This article begins with a discussion of the concept of power. Hard power, however, is less useful today as the global system changes in its disfavour. He firstly questions the strength of culture as a soft power resource as cultural influence does not equal political power (2004, p. 170). The program provides financial means to realise national policies combatting AIDS/HIV (Hackbarth, 2008, pp. Nossel, S., 2004. For example, the repressive measures put onto Germany after the Great War provoked another World War, whereas the soft power used to construct the European Union resulted in almost 70 years of Europe-wide peace. 9-10). On the contrary, soft power changes one’s attitude to the end that one acts voluntarily in a way different to one’s usual behaviour. A., 2000. Learn how and when to remove this template message, "Joseph Nye on Smart Power in Iran-U.S. Relations", "When it comes to Afghanistan, mixing military might with diplomatic talk is easier said than done", "Soft Power, Hard Power, and Our Image Abroad", "Sanction Qaddafi? Obviously, soft power is the opposite of "hard power." B., 2008. AFRICOM, Washington: Center for Strategic and International Studies. Do Contemporary Practices of Schooling Reinforce Colonial Relations of Power? Date Written: March 2014, All content on the website (with the exception of images) is published under the following Creative Commons License, Copyright © — E-International Relations. Wilson, E. J., 2008. Understanding Power in Counterinsurgency: A Case Study of the Soviet-Afghanistan War, Intermestic Realism: Domestic Considerations in International Relations. Your donations allow us to invest in new open access titles and pay our Rieffel, L. & Zalud, S., 2006. International Volunteering: Smart Power, Washington: The Brookings Institution. 2011. Smith-Windsor, B. The control over events and outcomes approach emerges as the best (2006, p. 1). Understanding International Conflicts. We know, for instance, that hard power and soft power can be applied in both the study of IR and social relations. The accessibility of soft power resources though depends much less on the size of a state. Definition of Power Hard power plays an important role for international relations. Strategic Insights, pp. In: D. Held & M. Koenig-Archibugi, eds. As the example of Norway shows, small states have definitely the ability to build soft power (cf. Furthermore, he states that compulsion leads to conflict and voluntariness to consent (2011, p. 30) which explains why soft power solutions tend to last longer than hard power solutions. Traditionally, the states opted for hard power tools in the framework of realpolitik thinking. However to properly ground this concept in International relations this paper will cover a number of interrelated topics. Weused hard power to deter the Soviet Unionduring the Cold War and soft power to rebuildJapan and Europe with the Marshall Plan and toestablish institutions and norms that havebecome the core of the international system.Today’s context presents a unique set ofchallenges, however, and requires a new way ofthinking about American power. One of the main objectives of foreign policy is to get other nations to adopt your policy goals as their own. Overall, it appears that soft power strategies are more effective in the contemporary international system than hard power strategies. Smith-Windsor, 2000, p. 52). Then, the effectiveness of the two concepts is assessed by discussing different examples of their use in foreign policy making. ... Nye, for example, offers his concept of “soft power” as a counterpoint to the realist emphasis on “hard power. Part 1 presents a critical account of prevalent conceptions of'hard power' in mainstream studies informed by realist!R and maintains that realism's power analysis is rather unrealistic insofar as it over-privileges material forms of power and focuses on the visible dimension of power relations … Armitage, R. L. & Nye, J. S., 2007. Nevertheless for the purpose of analysis elements of national power can be generally divided as below. Foreign Affairs, 83(2), pp. Nye, J. S., 1990. However to properly ground this concept in International relations this paper will cover a number of interrelated topics. The characteristics of the contemporary world order weaken the effectiveness of hard power strategies. The following examples show how soft power can be used effectively. Power (international relations) Concepts of political power. In contrast, soft power is persuasive power deriving from attraction and emulation and grounded on intangible resources such as culture. Realism is one of these schools of thought. Although they are oppositional approaches to power, their combination, smart power, has its place in academic debate and policy making. Gallarotti, G., 2011. The ANNALS of the American Academy for Political and Social Science, Issue 616, pp. Almost the Same, But Not Quite (Soft): the Duality of Russian Soft Power. According to Steinberg, “the strategy [of the invasion of Iraq] failed to understand what elements of power were needed most to defeat the emerging threat” from terrorist groups (2008, p. 159). [1] Hard power contrasts with soft power, which comes from diplomacy, culture and history. Within International Relations, there are several ‘schools of thought’, each with their own theories and assumptions. Primary usage of... Power as status. Hard power describes a nation or political body's ability to use economic incentives or military strength to infl… He stresses for example that Japan’s war history forms the main limitation to its soft power (2010, p. 299), whereas China’s “competitive state-led model and its authoritarian political system” hinder the full utilisation of its soft power potential (ibid., p. 300). [Accessed 11 March 2014]. 6-7). [1], According to Joseph Nye, hard power involves "the ability to use the carrots and sticks of economic and military might to make others follow your will". Gallarotti stresses that hard power evokes compelled action, whereas soft power induces voluntary action. Similarly, the temporal dimension of the gain of hard power and soft power strategies differs: while military or economic coercion tends to result in an immediate but short-duration outcome, attraction and persuasion have the tendency to cause long-term change. In general, he defines power as the “ability to affect others to get the outcomes one wants” (2009, p. 61) and command or hard power as coercive power wielded through inducements or threats (2009, p. 63). 6-10), this strategy embodies three instruments: (i) the African Growth and Opportunity Act is a program of bilateral trade agreements bound to certain political, economic and social reforms (ibid., pp. The debate over whether U.S. interests abroad are better served by hard powercoercive means such as military forceor soft powerless aggressive means of persuasion, such as diplomacy, economic aid, and propagandais perennial. Nye, J. S., 2004. One can differentiate between hard and soft power tools in international relations. 10. Global Politics. According to the realist school in international relations theory, power is linked with the possession of certain tangible resources, including population, territory, natural resources, economic and military strength, among others. Power as status, which some states or actors possess and others do not. The long-term effectiveness of the return to hard power is probably more dependent on the military and economic strength of the United States, Russia and China than their international image. In 2008, Nye added the wide-spread access to information to this list (p. 99) and Gallarotti stresses that also the growth of democracy hinders the effectiveness of hard power (2011, p. 40). Now, on to realism. They impose restrictions on exports of nuclear and missile to Iran, banking and insurance transactions, investment in oil, exports of refined petroleum products, and so on. Such measures are taken by many nations to deter Iran's possible nuclear weapon programs because they wanted to ensure that the Islamic Republic of Iran is forced to negotiate a deal (p5 +1) in order to reduce its nuclear weapons programme which was steadily on its way to creating Iran into nuclear power. Nossel, 2004) and Nye (cf. Public Diplomacy and Soft Power. This explanation mirrors some of the above mentioned factors triggering the decline in the use of hard power. Wagner, C., 2005. American Power in the 21st Century. The power to which these thinkers are alluding is hard power. Many thanks! LITERATURE REVIEW This paper is on soft power. Nonetheless, one of the core ideas separating soft and hard power is that soft power persuades and attracts, whereas hard power uses coercion. The long-term effectiveness of the return to hard power is probably more dependent on the military and economic strength of the United States, Russia and China than their international image. Morrison, J. S. & Hicks, K., 2007. Cooper, R., 2004. How 5 nations have reacted to sanctions: Iran", International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919), Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC), Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), China–Japan–South Korea trilateral summits, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, Australia–New Zealand–United States Security Treaty (ANZUS), Brazil–Russia–India–China–South Africa (BRICS), Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, Colombia–Indonesia–Vietnam–Egypt–Turkey–South Africa (CIVETS), India–Brazil–South Africa Dialogue Forum (IBSA), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hard_power&oldid=1010480055, Articles needing additional references from April 2012, All articles needing additional references, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 5 March 2021, at 18:05. Based on this promising foundation, the EU’s “soft power derives from its readiness to offer a seat at the decision making table” (Cooper, 2004, pp. Moving on from the definitional part of this paper. 25-47. An example for the ineffectiveness of basing foreign policy making solely on hard power strategies is the U.S. invasion into Iraq in 2003. Nonetheless, one of the core ideas separating soft and hard power is that soft power persuades and attracts, whereas hard power uses coercion. Secondly, the desirability of the outcomes of soft power strategies depends on particular circumstances which cannot necessarily be influenced by states (ibid., p. 171). Nye, 2009, pp. [4] According to the realist school in international relations theory, power is linked with the possession of certain tangible resources, including population, territory, natural resources, economic and military strength, among others. The U.S. Africa Command can be seen as an unsuccessful soft power strategy. Indeed, some foreign policy strategies may be perceived as effective combinations of the two poles of the power continuum. New York: Public Affairs. History. Hard power describes a nation or political body's ability to use economic incentives or military strength to influence other actors’ behaviors. While the existence of hard power has a long history, the term itself arose when Joseph Nye coined soft power as a new and different form of power in a sovereign state's foreign policy. The essay states that soft power is the more effective and efficient concept in contemporary global politics because of its endurance and sustainability. Russia will probably hang on to Crimea because Ukraine is the weaker state and shows no real appetite to get it … Before you download your free e-book, please consider donating to Nye, J. S., 2008. Thus, the German invasion into Poland in 1939 and the UN economic sanctions against Iraq in 1991 following the first Gulf War are examples for the use of hard power. amount, in any currency, is appreciated. The concept of power is central to international relations. The U.S. Foreign Policy, Issue 141, pp. [4] For instance, there are many sanctions against Iran passed by UN Security Council and numerous nations such as the United States and those of the European Union also impose bilateral sanctions against Iran.
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